2
   2021
   

( -   -)
 : 3     :100
:     -    ,          
                
 -
1.                
2.                   
       
 -
3.            ?  
4.              
 -
5.             
2
6. -          
-
7.       '  
8.             
2
   2021
   

( -   -)
 : 3     :100
:     -    ,          
                
 -
1.                
:        
     
   ' ,     ,  
       , , ,       
     
     
 ,         ,  ,  
   '             
        
 -         ,
         -- 
󷉃󷉄1.      ?
     
             , "
?" 
"
  ?"  "  ?"   , ,   
         
2
           -    
, "  ?"  "  ?"   
     '
   
      
 -    ,    
       ,  
󼨐󼨑󼨒2.        
     ,       :
a)   -   ?
   :
  ?
    ?
     ?
  ,       ""      
 , ,           '   

,      , ,       
 
) - -   ?
       :
   ?

   ?
 
      ?
 ,      , "  ,    " (, 
)    '        

  -  

- ,         -   ,
       
c)  -      ?
,   ,   ,        
2
          
          - " " - 
   
               
      
 -   '   : , ,   , 
, 
d)    -        ?
  ,    '  
            - 
 
       ,    
 
              
   , ,         
e)  -   
  
         ,      
      ,  ( )  
󷆫󷆪3.      
󷃆󼽢A.   
       ,          
   '  
 -  ,     
   :
     ?
 
     ?
     ,         
 
󷃆󼽢B.    
2
    '    -       
,   ,
,   
         
   ,        
-        "    "  
 -  
      
    , -       
󷃆󼽢C.    
   :
   ?
     ?
  , ,        ?
           -      
             ,      
         -    
    ,      '  
󷃆󼽢.   
       ,   ,    
     
               
       '     '  
,     , ,   
    
󷃆󼽢.  , ,  
     :
  ?
2
       ?
     ?
           ,      
          
  , , ,  ,       
  
󹸯󹸭󹸮4.     : 
  ,     '       
   (  ,  ,  ) ,    
 '   
      -          
 ,         ;      
 
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂5.       
       :
 
  

     

   -    

, ,   

   - "  ,    "

   '  

  

    

    

, ,   
2
 
  
 
    
󷗭󷗨󷗩󷗪󷗫󷗬6.     
?
      ,       
  
  :
     
    
  -    '  
      
     
,     
   
    
     ,    ,
     
󽄻󽄼󽄽 :        
     
 -         
 
        ,     ,    
    
            ,  
   ,   - , , ,  -     

 ,  
            
    ,   
2.                   
       
:    :      
1.  - :          
2
            
    ,
     : ",  , ,     
    '  
       
 
  
"  ,  ?
    
        ,  
   
2.   ?
  (1685–1753)           
          " "   
""    
                "
"      
   :
"   "
(




)
    
 ,     ?   ,   
 
  
  -           
3.   :        
   ,      -       -
               :
       
         
           
       
?
    -  
    ,  
    
   ?
      -     '  ,   
?
 ,     : ,           
 ,      
2
4.       
         :
() 
       ,   
     
        -    
, ,
,   :
     
     
     

    '    
 
      
   ,  
         ?
()   

     :  
 
 ,    

    :
1.  (  
 )
2.  (    )
   
 " " 
     '  
(C)      
    
     , , ,    
   
    ,         ,  
   ?
 
  :
    
  ,     
    
  ,      
5.    : 
  '     
 
  ,  
    
     
 

          
2
     
   
    
     ?
  : ,           
   :               


      ?
          

   ,            ""
     

6.      ' 
        " "   
  ,              
      

         :

     
          
    " " 
 
        ,    
 , 
  
7.         

   -         ,      ?
    :     
   ,    
     
      
 
    ,   
 
 ,      
 :       

   
 
2
8.          
    ,           
      
() :      ?
             ,       
 ?
        ,          !
    ,       '    

()      
            "     "  
          :

        ?
       
 ?
()   
   '     ,        
 
          
  , ,            -

           
  
  ,    ,      
()    
    
     ,    
   
   
  :
      
 
         
      ,       
  
 
      

2
9.     
   ,      
      
              

            
,        
10.  : -  
          :
       
     

      
,       

      ' 
,  ,      
 '   
      -    '     
      -             
   
 -
3.            ?  
:󼨐󼨑󼨒 - :    
      17
           
    ,     ,         ? 
 ?     '    ?     ,  
           "   "
  
         -   
  
           : 
2
󼨻󼨼     ?
  ,              
 :
1.  ( ) -   , - 
2.  -    ,  
             ,     
 
 
       ,   ,  
      
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂:       
?
      '  
 ,              
             
         ,     -   
     
   '           
   ' 

        
󼨻󼨼      --  
    '          
1.   - "  ,  ..."
     '    :
    '    ?       
     ?    

          ? 
     ,    : "   "       , 
     
         :
2
",  " -   ,    
          
         
   
     :    
,     
   

2.     
,    : "  ?"
 :           
    
 
      ,     ,    , 
     
  ,   :
    -  :
: -,   
: ,  

 ,    
3.       
  "   "           
   ,      
   :
   '        
   '       - ,   

     '     '   ,    
    
4.    
             :
     

2
            
 ,  
  '        ,  
 
     
                   
  
5. -   
     - ,      -  ?  :
         (  ),     
(  )
     (  )  ,    (  )
  
             ,   
 (       )  ,     

,        
󷗛󷗜     
   
           , 
   ,   
     ( )    , 
    '     :  -  
       
󼨻󼨼      
     ,        
 :
  -       
 ?
     
 -     
 ?
   
        
  ,           
 ,      ,        

2
󷕘󷕙󷕚 :       
   
         
     
               
,   , , ,     
     ,
 
  "  ,    "   
        
  ,                  
    
 "    ?" -       , 
 '    ,      
    
  
4.              
:           
(      )
   
    
 ,  , 
  
,             
     
  : "    ?  
,  , -          ?"
          (1646–1716)  
   
   
,      -- ,     
       ?
,   ,           ,   

     (        ),  
     ,       "" 
 
    ?
    ,   ,       
-
 ,     ,      ,  ,     
2
         , ,      
 
         
            


1.       (  ,  
)
         
         
               ,  
        
              
   
     '   

 -   
   
       ,  -  ', -
  
     ,  
    
 
    
2.     
 -       
             
          '  
   
         ?
        ,    "  
"                ,
               

  ,   ,          
 ,      ,      
 -    
        
3.          
               
   (   ),        (    )
      :
2
    ',       (    
)
  ',         
    ',        -  
           
     
   ,  ,        
4.      
              ,    
              
      ,       
   
             
5.       
 
              ' 

        ,         
        
             -   
 
        
6.      
        '   -        
 
  ,  ,   -      
             
,   
       '    
 
 :         
              
       ,         
,       
 ,     -    
 
2
   
  :
  ,   
       
     
 -     
        
       
;    ,   
       
 -
5.             
:      -     
            , "
 
   ?"          ,      
 
    
          , 
       -   
        : "      
 

,   
"
  ,  ?         
   '  - --,    
1.    
,   
 ,         , "!    "  
 , "               ?"
   , "           
       

  
    -    
  
 "
       :
"     "
2
 ,          
                   -
        
2.         
    , "      ?    ?"
   
  , "        "
              -  
    
  ,     , , , 
     '          ()  
  ,  
  
 -      
 ,     :
"            "
   ,           180°  ,   
   
 -         
3.      
       , "        
,   "     -         '

            , --,  
              
  ,     :
"         "
        -         
 
 , ,      
4.          '  
 ,       , "2 + 2  4  ,     
   !"       , "    
      -  ,     "
2
 
            
 ,            '  
            

  
   :
"       "
5.      
     , "   '     
 
 
        "    , "!  
 "
             '
 , "  ,    " (,  )    '    -
 , ,       -     '   

         

   :
"  '     
   
   '     "
      ,           
 :   
   
,      ?
  :
     ,
        ,
      ,
             
 ,  , ,          
    '     
,       
           ,    
  
2
    
 -       , 
      ,       

6. -          
:  - : -    ?
        
   
     '      -

 
               

   
   
     - 
    
    
       ,   , -  
-         :
󷵻󷵼󷵽󷵾"
         ,   - 
,   ,  
 
"
           - 
   
    
              
       - 
      
  -            

1.   -  


    :

- 
    
 
2 + 2 = 4     ,        
  :
   
     
   '   
       -    -   
-  
        
2
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 :

          ,       
  ,    
2.     
      :
         '  
  :
     ,  
  
,       '   
    ,  
   -     -
   ,     
 
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 :
      ,  -        '
 
3.      
-     , .. ,    :
""  ,  

""        
    "  
 "  "    "  
""      

  -  , ""        
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨      :

""    
  
      -  
 
  
4. 
           
-     :
    '      
 ,    :
"  "
2
"  "
   
       ,   
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨        , "       "
         ,      

5.         
 ,       
                 :
      
   ' 
  ,    
   
   
 
    
       , 
 ,  , ,        
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 :            
 
  (, )    -     ,  
          
6.    -     
 
             
     , 
    :
  -        
,  ,     ,      ""  
    
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨      -      ,      
  
 
-   ( )
 -    ,    :
 - -      
 - ' 
   ?
    ,      '  
 ?
  -         ?
2
   ,     -        - 
, 
     
 :    
   
            
    
      
  
 -    -    
  :
 ,      -  


'         
 ' 
 ,       
-
7.       '  
:󹵅󹵆󹵇󹵈:    ?
       ,    '   
          
      
     '   ,     
 ,         ,  ,   
    
    
          :
  ?
  
?
     ?
              ?
󷆫󷆪   :   ?
        ,    19
 20
  
   (1813-1855)-      ,  
         ,    
     
2
  (1844-1900)       '  , "
  "     
,      
-         - 
  
-    (1905–1980)-       
    "    ",  
      , 
  '     
   
 
  (1913–1960)-      
,  " "
(         )    
      
󼨐󼨑󼨒      
         
 :
󷃆󷃊   
 
     
  ,     
 
          
   (  "")
   
󷃆󽅕 :
        -     ""    
     
 
,      

 
  ,   
    
   
󷃆󷃋   
     ( )       
  
     
      
,   
,  
   
 
󷃆󽅕       
  - 
 
    ,  
     
 

     
 
2
󷃆󷃌,    
         
,       , 

 ,      
󷃆󽅕       -      
   
  
     
,        
  
      
 -      
           
󷃆󷃍 
        ,     
      ,      ,    
 
󷃆󽅕 
 ,      
    ,    
      -       
󷃏󷃎  
   " "           
  
 
         

󷃆󽅕:    
   , "   ?"   
 
                  -
        
󻧀󻧁󻧂󻧃󻧄󻧅󻧆󻧇󻧈󻩈󻩉󻧲󻧳󻧴󻧵󻧶󻧷󻧸󻧹󻩊󻩋󻩌󻧺󻧻󻧼     
    
 -          
  
 
     ,     : 
       
       ,    : 
  
    
         
,    : 
      
2
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂 :      
      
,       ,  
   -   : ",       , 
   
    -  
 "
          ,  ,
 
8.             
:         


,
 


      20
        , 
      ,      
   ,              
      ,      
          : 
     
 ?  
  '    ?
           -   (
     )      ,    
               

             
  
1.    -      
    1920         
              
               
      ,    
2
    ,  ,        
          
 (      -)     
      , ,       
             
  
2.    -   
              ,
"        "   : 

    ?  
          
 ?  
,       
     ,          :
        , 
     '    
 ,   :
 100°C '  ” →  (   )
   ” →  (  ' )
"  " →  (   
)
        
      
  ,          
 -    
   

3. -  -     
   ',          :
    ?
      ?
  ?
          
 ,      '        
   
2
             
            
,             
     

4.      
                
        
 ,      "  ,"     ?  
""    ?  
" "   ?  
,   
      '  
 ,      '   ,     
             
5.      
         -     
  
     (   )  , 
          
   :
     
    
          
   20
            
 
6.    
       
  ,   
 ,      
     :     
     -  
              ? 
  
  ,   !
       :
2
         (  ,  ,
)    
    (    )       
'  

          
 , ... ,          ,
 1960   ,        
7.    
       
 ,      
 
       :
       
     
      
       
            , 
     
 :     
                '
        ,        
  
   
      ,      
              
 -    
 -    ,   
    
         ,    
     
 :    ?      ?  
   ?
"                  

          ,           "